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< Back Electoral College: Potential Problems Written By: Laura Ruzicka Publishing Date: November 19, 2022 The distribution of electoral votes in each state is currently determined by the U.S. National Census and updated every ten years. However, according to the National Archives, Congress introduced over 700 proposals to either reform or abolish the Electoral College. Public opinion polls show most Americans favor abolishing it by 58% in 1967, 81% in 1968, and 75% in 1981. Even so, many are unaware of the potential problems that lie within one of the nation's most fundamental processes. Not even the Founding Fathers could have foreseen the repercussions of the Electoral College. Our nation’s electoral process has racist origins, as noted in the inclusion of the Three-fifths Compromise in the Connecticut Compromise. At the time of its creation, the Three-fifths Compromise determined how much representation a state’s slave population would have in accordance with the state’s total population. This gave most slave-owning southern states a huge electoral advantage because, without the Three-fifths Compromise, southern states would have been out-voted in the House every time. When the Thirteenth Amendment passed, southern states were able to further benefit from their Black populations for decades on. Back then, our nation’s population was more uniform than it is today, and there were only thirteen states compared to fifty in 2022. With more states, and the population growing every day, this has led to a more uneven representation and an imbalance of power. Despite the increase in population , the total number of electoral votes has stayed the same for decades. The number of congressional districts in each state is equal to the number of electoral votes that each state gets. However, after the National Census is completed, states’ congressional districts are reapportioned according to how much each state loses or gains in population, thereby gaining an electoral vote or losing one. This could skew the Electoral College, because states with a lower population have more Electoral power per capita. As time has gone on, people have begun to view the Electoral College not as a democratic process, but more of a barrier to true democracy. For instance, in a Presidential election it is possible to win the popular vote but still lose the election if your opponent wins the Electoral vote. In 2016 Hilary Clinton won the popular vote, having 2,868,686 more votes than Donald Trump. Yet Clinton only received 227 electoral votes compared to Trumps’ 304 electoral votes, winning him the election. Faithless electors are another potential problem of the Electoral College, where members vote against the candidate that won the majority in their state. Breaking faith and putting their views ahead of the majority. For a long time, it was rare to have a faithless elector, but when it did happen there usually was only one. However, the 2016 elections marked a significant shift in our politically polarized nation’s when seven electors in a row disagreed with the majority, voting for someone else instead. As history will point out, the Electoral College is not a process that is 100% infallible as can be seen with past elections like Clinton vs. Trump. Unfortunately, there are only two ways to permanently reform the Electoral College. According to the National Archives, since the electoral process is part of the U.S. Constitution, Congress would need to pass a constitutional amendment to change the system. To do that, the amendment must first be proposed by a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Congress, and later be ratified by three-fourths of the States’ Legislatures. However, there are still some reforms that can mitigate the problems with the electoral college. One such reform is the National Popular Vote Bill that allows the electoral votes of any state that passes the bill to be awarded to the candidate that wins the national popular vote. However, this bill will only take effect when enacted into law by enough states with at least 270 electoral votes in total. As of April 26th 2021, the bill has been enacted into law in fifteen states totaling 195 electoral votes. Sources Lau, T. (2021, February, 17). “The Electoral College, Explained” BrennanCenter.org . Brennan Center for Justice at NYU Law. https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/electoral-college-explained Funakoshi, M., Foo, W., Wolfe, J. (2020, October, 16). “How the Electoral College works” Reuters.com . https://graphics.reuters.com/USA-ELECTION/ELECTORAL-COLLEGE/qzjpqaeqapx/ National Archives and Records Administration . (2019, December 23). “Electoral College History.” National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.archives.gov/electoral-college/history “What Is the 3/5 Compromise?”. (n.d.). ConstitutionUS.com . Retrieved August 5,2022. https://constitutionus.com/constitution/what-is-the-3-5-compromise/ “ Electoral College Fast Facts”.(n.d). History, Art & Archives, U.S. House of Representatives . Retrieved September 17, 2022 . from https://history.house.gov/Institution/Electoral-College/Electoral-College/ National Popular Vote. (2021, April 27). Status of National Popular vote bill in each State. National Popular Vote . Retrieved October 7, 2022 https://www.nationalpopularvote.com/state-status A brief history of electoral college reform efforts. Goddard Media LLC. (2020, January 30). Electoral Vote Map . Retrieved October 7, 2022. https://electoralvotemap.com/history-of-electoral-college-reform-efforts/#Reform_Efforts_by_Advocacy_Groups Previous Next

< Back Civic Engagement: How To Run For Office Written By: Mecedes Lindsay Publishing Date: November 14, 2022 In the United States, when someone intends to run for a public office, there are minimum requirements that they must meet. Some examples of minimum requirements for a few positions are: U.S. Senator 30 years old with 9 years of U.S citizenship with State residency. U.S. Representative 25 years old with 7 years of U.S. citizenship with State residency. U.S.President 35 years old with 14 years of U.S. citizenship and State residency. Governor 30 years old with 2 years of state residency and a U.S. citizenship. Secretary of State 25 years old with 2 years of state residency and U.S. citizenship. Running for a public office is quite simple when put into words, however these offices can have long-lasting impacts on a given state or territory. In order to become a candidate one must announce their campaign publicly and raise or spend 5,000 dollars or more in contributions or expenditures. Eventually, the candidate will sign a “Statement of Candidacy.” This statement collects the basic information about a candidate and will be where the candidate lists the campaign committees working for them. Though this process looks similar across many cities, townships, and states, each state has a slightly varied process and specific requirements for candidates running at the local- or state-levels, so it is best to visit your state’s website to clarify these before running. Accessing information on running a campaign at the federal-level can be found by contacting the Federal Election Commission at 1-800-424-9530 or visiting their website ( www.fec.gov ). There are different types of delegates pledged, bound delegates, unpledged delegates, or superdelegates. Bound delegates must support the candidate they were awarded in the primary or caucus process and unpledged delegates can support any presidential candidate they choose. During the first round of voting pledged delegates must vote for the candidate they were awarded while unpledged delegates can vote for any candidate. However, superdelegates cannot vote in the first round unless it is an instance where a candidate has enough delegates from the primaries and caucuses to automatically win the nomination. Now, If no nominee wins in the first round, the convention will be considered "brokered." Then pledged delegates can choose any candidate in the later rounds of voting while superdelegates can also vote in these later rounds. This continues until a candidate wins the nomination. While local- and state-level requirements and conditions may vary from territory to territory, information for a presidential run will be the same in every state.Presidential general elections occur every four years on the first Tuesday in November. Candidates participate in several state primaries and caucuses before they reach the general election. The primaries and caucuses allow the states to choose the major political parties’ nominees for the general election but they are each run differently. The state primary voting happens through a secret ballot and is run by state and local governments. Caucuses, however, are run by political parties in private meetings. Each is held at the county-, district-, or precinct-level. Participants will divide themselves into groups based on the candidate they support while undecided voters will be grouped. Each group will give a speech in support of their candidate and try to persuade the other groups to join them. In the end, the number of delegates a candidate receives is determined by the number of voters in their group. After the primaries and caucuses, the political parties hold a national convention where the winning candidates receive their nominations. The delegates will attend the national convention to vote to confirm their choice of candidates. The convention is also where the presidential nominee will officially announce their running mate who would serve as their Vice President. Sources Elections & Voting, https://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/elections/ . “House, Senate and Presidential Candidate Registration.” FEC.gov , https://www.fec.gov/help-candidates-and-committees/registering-candidate/house-senate-president-candidate-registration/ . “House, Senate and Presidential Candidate Registration.” FEC.gov , https://www.fec.gov/help-candidates-and-committees/registering-candidate/house-senate-president-candidate-registration/ . “Presidential Election Process.” USAGov, https://www.usa.gov/election . Previous Next

< Back House Bill 1484 Written By: Carson Watkins Publishing Date: June 21, 2023 Whenever an instance of police overreach makes headlines, citizens and government officials ponder ways to have a system of accountability to prevent future tragedies. In the State of Indiana, Representative Vernon Smith recently introduced House Bill 1484 to establish Citizen police review boards in Indiana. In the legislation, Rep. Smith recommends a board with eight members, four within each political party, and lays out the guidelines to respond to claims promptly with proper due process. (House Bill 1484). Police review boards started in early America but gained traction in the 1970s as African American communities began to receive expanded political power. The United States Justice Department’s 2001 Report on citizen review boards received positive reviews from police chiefs around the country, praising the boards for assisting in community relations and oversite. (Finn, 2001, P. 10). While these Boards receive positive feedback from some officers, they have faced scrutiny from citizens and law enforcement for ineffectiveness. At the Lake County Sheriff's Office, James Dilimone, a detective, found that these boards can be helpful but need reform. Dilimone cites Police Assessment Resource Center Executive Director Merrick Bobb, who calls it “one of the weakest models of police accountably” and can lead to mistrust due to the members of the board not being adequately trained to review instances of police violence. (Dilimone, 2019, P. 5). Despite this pushback, Dilimone found that the panels can be an effective deterrent to police overreach, saying, “The policy recommendations, the discipline review, and citizen complaint review are motivating factors. These results and conclusions have helped administrators draft and develop policies consistent with their communities. (Dilimone, 2019, P. 12). With police boards gaining traction, recommendations on how to utilize these boards have come from outside influences. Kelly Moore at the American Civil Liberties Union recommends Independence, Meaningful disciplinary power, transparency, and a proper budget. In his report, James Dilmone mentioned that distrust could be sowed in Police Review Boards. Moore believes that if guidelines are agreed upon, communities' trust in the boards will increase. Moore says, “These would require the ultimate disciplinary authority for police in town (typically the police chief) to apply those disciplinary guidelines in every case when the CRB finds misconduct.” (Moore, 2020). Currently, the legislation has been referred to Committee on Veterans Affairs and Public Safety. Citizens Police Review Boards can effectively provide overwatch and strengthen a community's relationship with the police department and make meaningful differences in the communities that police swore to protect. Sources Dilimore, James (2019) Effectiveness of a Citizen Review Board, Florida Department of Law Enforcement https://www.fdle.state.fl.us/FCJEI/Programs/SLP/Documents/Full-Text/Dilimone,-James-paper.aspx Finn, Peter (2001) Citizen Review of Police: Approaches and Implementation United States Department of Justice https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/184430.pdf House Bill 1484, Session 123, (IN,23) https://iga.in.gov/legislative/2023/bills/house/1484#document-5cf0f424 Moore, Kelly (2020) FOR CIVILIAN REVIEW BOARDS TO WORK, THEY MUST AVOID PAST MISTAKES, ACLU Connecticut https://www.acluct.org/en/news/civilian-review-boards-work-they-must-avoid-past-mistakes Previous Next

The effects of climate change in the United States are vast, and youth activism has grown. Join the conversation. < Back Climate Change The Climate Science Special Report from in 2017 predicted that, without a major reduction in emissions, there could be a 9°F (5°C) increase in annual average global temperature relative to preindustrial times by the end of this century. These rises in temperature are expected to increase the intensity and frequency of extreme events. According to the U.S. National Climate Assessment, the impacts will vary depending on the region. This includes, but is not limited to: decreased water and food security caused by constrained freshwater supplies, effects on agricultural practices due to increased demand for water and energy, and heat waves and coastal flooding as a result of rising sea levels and storm surge. Climate change is increasingly damaging to indigenous populations across the U.S. due to decreases in water quality caused by legal issues associated with tribal water rights and land-use policies and practices. The effects of climate change are becoming clearer and more dangerous by the day, impacting populations and regions across the United States. It is vital to educate ourselves and fight for legislation that will reduce the nation’s impact on the environment and improve the quality of life for future generations. OTHER TOPICS Gender Equality Healthcare Inequality Immigration LGBTQI+ Rights Labor Rights Medical Autonomy Mental Health Racial Justice Social Class Discrimination Voting Rights What can I do about this? 1. Become more consciously aware and look for ecofriendly alternatives/solutions. For example, try and save energy at home by making it more energy-efficient. Perhaps try taking public transportation more often, and cut down on waste. 2. Stay up-to-date on policies and take the step towards voicing your concerns and fight for legislations that will help improve our current environment. USYF CONTENT An Interview with Delaney Reynolds from the Sink or Swim Project by Melissa Ballard External Resources Indigenous Environmental Network Citizens’ Climate Lobby ConservAmerica US Climate Reliance Toolkit An Introduction to Climate Change and its Effects by Amanuel Bahru, Fatima Javed, and Savitha Sithartha Previous Next

Political Polarization in America: Where Are We and How Did We Get Here? Written By: Maddox Larson Publishing Date: April 23, 2023 Tensions in American politics feel as though they’ve never been higher. During this last mid-term election season, there is no doubt that many candidates spoke the words: “democracy is on the ballot,” but was this really the case (Nichols, 2022 and Milligan, 2022)? The Pew Research Center reports that 61% of U.S. adults have an unfavorable view of the Republican Party and 57% hold a negative view of the Democratic Party (Pew Research Center, 2022). Even still, today’s Democrats and Republicans are more consistently liberal and conservative, respectively, than in past years. How is the American democracy polarizing faster than others? (Pew Research Center, 2014 and Brown University, 2020). How did we get to this point where one can kill lifelong relationships at the very mention of any topic remotely political? Answers to the last question may include modern social media, racial division, increases in derogatory political rhetoric, and even policies from decades long past. Nevertheless, political polarization is a prevalent issue in modern American politics that requires careful examination. Polarization, as it is often being used in the political sphere, generally refers to an increasing divide between ideologies and the associated increase in antipathy. More specifically, the European Center for Populism Studies writes that “political polarization can refer to the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes” (European Center for Populism Studies, n.d.) In America’s two-party system, this occurs along bipartisan lines. As mentioned, this polarization includes antipathy or hostility toward members of alternate parties and stronger, more negative rhetoric when speaking toward or about them. As the issue is very complicated, the exact causes of this increased bipartisan divide are relatively unclear. The Pew Research Center does show that approval ratings of presidents from their own party versus the opposing party have grown further and further apart (Pew Research Center, 2014). [A1] Eisenhower averaged an 88% approval rating among the Republican party and 49% among the Democratic party—that is a 39-percentage point gap. Fast forward to Obama and there was an average 81% approval among Democrats and 14% among Republicans—a 67-percentage point increase approximately 1.7 times greater than 50 years prior. Some explain this gap by turning to divisive presidential policies like Reagan’s ‘War on Drugs,’ Ford’s pardon of Richard Nixon, Jimmy Carter’s creation of FEMA, or JFK’s creation of the Peace Corps; however, these provide little explanation. Afterall, what is it that caused these policies to be controversial? One source says that, as of right now, the best explanation is media bubbles and in-group bias (Facing History & Ourselves, 2019). Media bubbles refer to the fact that “many Americans are exposed to partisan news in their social media feeds and often have very few social media friends on the other end of the political spectrum. Online platforms, such as YouTube, use algorithms to expose viewers to increasingly extreme content, which can lead them to fringe political views without their realizing it.” The status of this issue in the United States seems rather disheartening. Politically, we agree less and less each election on how our shared country ought to be run, and there doesn’t seem to be any hope that things will change soon. On the contrary, the simplest acts can have the greatest impacts, and such is the case for this issue. Namely, working collectively and individually to overcome in-group bias. Just because we feel more comfortable with those who agree with us politically doesn’t mean we can’t listen to opinions from other sides or surround ourselves with people who disagree. Approaching difficult topics with an open mind and an open heart is one of the easiest yet most difficult actions we can take to combat political polarization in America. [A1] We also have to add APA in text citations where applicable so just something to keep in mind when you edit your draft Sources Barrett, P., Hendrix, J., & Sims, G. (2021, September 27). How tech platforms fuel U.S. political polarization and what government can do about it. Retrieved from The Brookings Institution: https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2021/09/27/how-tech-platforms-fuel-u-s-political-polarization-and-what-government-can-do-about-it/ Brown University. (2020, January 21). U.S. is polarizing faster than other democracies, study finds. Retrieved from News from Brown: https://www.brown.edu/news/2020-01-21/polarization Desilver, D. (2022, March 10). The polarization in today's Congress has roots that go back decades. Retrieved from Pew Research Center: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/03/10/the-polarization-in-todays-congress-has-roots-that-go-back-decades/ European Center for Populism Studies. __. “Political polarization.” Retrieved from European Center for Populism Studies: https://www.populismstudies.org/Vocabulary/political-polarization/ Facing History & Ourselves. (2019, October 22). “Political polarization in the United States.” Retreived from Facing History & Ourselves: https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/political-polarization-united-states Jensen, J., Kaplan, E., Naidu, S., & Wilse-Samson, L. (2012). Political Polarization and the Dynamics of Political Language: Evidence from 130 Years of Partisan Speech. Brookings Papers on Economics Activity , 1-81. Kolbert, E. (2021, December 27). How Politics Got So Polarized. Retrieved from The New Yorker: https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/01/03/how-politics-got-so-polarized Milligan, Susan. (2022, November 2). “Biden: ‘Make no mistake: Democracy is on the ballot.” Retrieved from USNews: https://www.usnews.com/news/elections/articles/2022-11-02/biden-make-no-mistake-democracy-is-on-the-ballot Nichols, Tom. (2022, November 9). “Democracy Was on the Ballot—And Won.” Retrieved from The Atlantic Daily: https://www.theatlantic.com/newsletters/archive/2022/11/democracy-won/672061/ Pew Research Center. (2014). Political Polarization in the American Public. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Pew Research Center. (2022). As Paritsan Hostility Grows, Signs of Frustration with the Two-Party System. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Solman, P., Koromvokis, L., & Jacobson, M. (2022, January 10). Political polarization prompts efforts to bridge the gap through shared experiences. Retrieved from PBS Nebraska Public Media: https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/political-polarization-prompts-efforts-to-bridge-the-gap-through-shared-experiences Previous Next

The History of Corporate Activism in America Written By: Carson Watkins Publishing Date: June 18, 2023 In recent American History, the line between politics and corporations has diminished. Recently Florida Governor Ron DeSantis has been in a months-long legal fight with Florida’s largest employer Disney over Florida’s Parental rights bill. Anheuser-Busch faced scrutiny after partnering with transgender activist Dylan Mulvaney, causing a nationwide boycott and a drop in stock price. However, is this a new phenomenon, or has corporate America always had a hand in governmental affairs? Corporations in Early American Government While there is no evidence that corporations had an explicit interest in the founding of the United States, there was business interest in the new land. In 1601, a group of businessmen in England started an expenditure to work out trade in the East India Company. Towards the end of the Decade, the corporation took an interest in colonizing North America (Osgood, 1896, p. 264). As more settlers made their way to North America, elected officials made efforts to find and appoint corporate entities to instill confidence in the new land. 1682 Governor Penn of Pennsylvania established The Free Society of Traders of Pennsylvania. In 1682 a formal agreement was drawn up establishing the coalition. Shortly after that, the state general assembly ratified the alliance allowing 20,000 acres of land to be granted to the society, and business was started with the approval of Governor Penn (Baldwin, 1903,453). The Society would ultimately be a failure in itself. That did stop other colonies from attempting similar expenditures. Printing Press Influence One of The United States' first successful businessmen, Ben Franklin, showed early America the power of the dollar in governmental affairs. With the Revolution raging Ben Franklin and his printing press were used to influence the public. In an editorial note in Pennsylvania, Franklin said, “It will always prevail over Falsehood. Therefore, though they have an undoubted Property in their Press, they willingly allow that anyone is entitled to the Use of it who thinks it necessary to offer his Sentiments on disputable Points to the Public.” (Franklin, 5). When the Stamp Act was proposed, skepticism arose in England that Americans would accept the Tax. Ben Franklin informed local politicians that he was doing everything he could to oppose The Stamp Act, but privately was puzzled by the opposition to the Act. (Frasca, 2009, 409). However, this did not stop other printing presses went forward from publishing harsh opinions and the potentially disastrous effects that the passage of the stamp act would have on the colonies. Rhode Island Merchant Nicholas Brown stated, “The press had much to do with whipping up public fever against the stamp act and its agents.” (Frasca, 2009, p. 407). The owners of printing presses were successful in their opposition as the public turned on the act, and the floodgates were open as wealthy individuals made efforts to sway public opinion on an issue. Business and Slavery The reconsecration era in the United States marked one of the lowest points in United States history, both politically and economically. The emancipation of enslaved people completely shut down the profitable economic system of the South. Historians widely agree that slave labor significantly contributed to the United States' economic growth. In the 1820s, a new breed of entrepreneurs was popping up in southern states specializing in purchasing enslaved individuals, and we're being rewarded handsomely for it. (Baptist, 2014,179). As enslaved people continued to be a lucrative industry, the value of cotton rose exponentially. In the 1820s, the American South supplied 70 percent of the world’s cotton (Srinivasan, 2017, p. 56). This financial success allowed southern plantation owners increased political power. After the 1800 Election of Thomas Jefferson led an expansion of representation in the House for southern states, this expansion allocated seventeen southern congressmen to represent three-fifths of the slave population. (Baptist, 2014, 153). As some northern politicians attempted to disband slavery, northern business leaders saw economic opportunity in southern states. Some high-class New Yorkers wanted the South to be accommodated politically (Wright, 2020, p. 25). However, this interest would start to wain over time. The South used the political authority they had garnered to oppose the expansion of the United States, opposing legislation such as the Homestead Act, Pacific Railroad Act, and Funding of agricultural education. (Wright, 2020, 26). This caused northern shareholders to turn back on their support of the South, viewing them as in competition with the expansion of the United States. The Civil Rights Movement While the Civil Rights Movement raged on, protesters often looked to corporate entities and organized boycotts if the company refused to hire or serve people of color. Black-owned businesses often pushed for civil rights by holding a quasi-civil rights movement within their communities. Local Governments started to crack down on black-owned businesses and attempt to disrupt the silent protest. After Rosa Parks protested public transportation forcing African Americans to sit in the back of the bus, local cab companies decided to lower their rates to match the price of a bus ticket so that African Americans who were participating in the bus boycott had the opportunity to still get to their destinations. Local police departments then began to enforce a minimum fair law that would crack down on cab companies from offering these fares and thus disrupt the protest. (Ferleger, Lavallee, 2018). Other black-owned businesses began taking economic losses as they attempted to protest the injustice that was taking place in the United States. Notably, Gus Quartz, who was a grocery store owner, registered several 100 black voters and had threats made against him. Gus Courts, A grocery store owner, began having multiple other businesses in the community refuse to work with him after speaking up, including not allowing him to purchase gasoline for his vehicle, other businesses refused to deliver to his store, and even an instance of him being shot in his store. (Fergler, Lavllee, 2018). While the central struggle in the South was at the feet of African American corporations all over America that were facing the consequences for supporting The Civil Rights Movement. Some corporations took the risk to push the movement forward despite the potential risk. Coca-Cola, based in Atlanta in the segregated state of Georgia, rallied white business leaders and politicians to celebrate Martin Luther King Jr. After the act's passing, serval corporations welcomed African American employees before it was socially acceptable. (Lin,2022,19). While progress moved forward in some corporations, others were slow to accept change. Heart of Atlanta The Passing of the Civil Rights Act was not the magical ending that some hoped for. In the landmark case of Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, plaintiffs alleged that the Heart of Atlanta motel only accommodated white clientele in violation of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. At the heart of the case, The Heart of America Motel believed that out-of-state travelers were exempt from Civil Rights Acts protections. According to the case, 75% of its registered guests we’re from out of State. Prior to the passage of the Act, the motel had followed a practice of refusing to rent rooms to African Americans, according to court documents The Motel intended to continue to do so. In an effort to dispute that policy, a suit was filed.” Heart of America’s attorneys argued that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 violated the Constitution's fifth, thirteenth, and fourteenth amendments. Heart of America’s attempt to make this an interstate commerce issue was unsuccessful, as the court denied their claim unanimously. Justice Clark said in the court’s majority opinion that. “It is clear that such a limitation renders the opinion devoid of authority for the proposition that the Commerce Clause gives no power to Congress to regulate discriminatory practices now found substantially to affect interstate commerce” (Clark, 1964). Citizens United Senators McCain and Feingold wrote and passed the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act to limit money's role in politics. The act limited the amount of corporate influence in elections by restricting the amount of money an entity could give a candidate, putting a cap at one thousand dollars. This did not stop corporations from making attempts to sway elections. One of the many entities engaging in these activities was Citizens United. Citizens United was found violating the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act when they made Hillary: The Movie, a documentary detailing the wrongdoings of Hillary Clinton during her 2008 presidential campaign. The Federal Elections Commission would not allow Citizens United to release the film accusing the company of electioneering. The FEC cited the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act prohibition on independent expenditur airtime 30-60 days before the election (Winkler, 2018, p. 329). Citizens United sued the FEC and the case made it to the Supreme Court. In a narrow 5-4 ruling, the Supreme Court gutted the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act and ushered in a new era of American politics. The ruling allowed for an era of Super Pacs which are allowed to give unlimited amounts of money to campaigns and produce advertising separate from the candidate allowing corporations to spend in elections and grant themselves access to politicians. Corporate Activism Today Corporate activism has taken a digital and forward-facing approach in today's hype-partisan world. Corporations can use their influence on social media to spread messages. Often these corporations use their economic power to pursue state governments. In 2015 Indiana’s State Legislator attempted to pass the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. This legislation faced backlash due to perceived anti-LGBTQ stances. Critics pointed to the bill allowing businesses to put up a sign that they would not serve certain members of the population if severing them would “substantially burden the individual's exercise of religion” (Religious Freedom Restoration Act, 2015). According to Aaron K. Chatterji and Michael W. Toffel at the Harvard Business Review, multiple CEOs came out against the bill. Angie’s List canceled a planned expansion to Indianapolis, Sales Force stopped employee travel to the state, and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) announced that the state might lose tournaments and considered moving its headquarters. Governor Mike Pence revised the bill saying that businesses may not refuse service based on sexual orientation (Chatterii, Toffel, 2018). While these victories are celebrated, others are skeptical of the corporation's intentions. Biotech founder Vivek Ramaswamy has been on the front lines speaking out against what he calls “Corporate Wokeism,” an idea that corporations who speak out on these issues are ill-motivated and do not practice what they preach. In The New Yorker, Sheelah Kolhatkar points out Ramaswamy's critique: "Amazon donates to organizations that aid Black communities while firing workers trying to unionize. While exploiting workers in Asia, Nike produces advertisements with the civil-rights activist and former N.F.L. quarterback Colin Kaepernick.” (Kolhatkar, The New Yorker, 2022). Ramaswamy believes that these corporations’ main goal is to cozy up with the democratic elite, not face backlash, and make money for their shareholders above all else. The Consumer Businesses can only survive with the support of consumers. When company’s take a risk to make a statement on policy, that will inherently cause disagreement, and some citizens have decided to vote with their wallets and not support businesses they disagree with. In 2012 several states were preparing to vote on propositions to legalize same-sex marriage in their state. Religious groups started taking in millions of dollars to fight these propositions and had support. Chicken fast food giant Chick-fil-la CEO said on a radio show, “I pray God's mercy on our generation that has such a prideful, arrogant attitude to think that we would have the audacity to try to redefine what marriage is all about” (HU, 2012). These comments and donations to LGBT groups made by the company sparked conversation and boycotts. Despite this Chick-Fil-La remains at the top of the fast-food marketplace. Even with success, Cathy regrets the attention his comments brought to the company, saying, “And it is probably very wise from our standpoint to make sure that we present our brand in a compelling way that the consumer can relate to” (O’Connor, 2014). Some companies' risks had financial consequences they were not expecting. Beer giant Bud Light partnered with Dylan Mulvaney, a transgender activist, for a new campaign. Bud Light’s involvement stoked backlash, resulting in a twenty-nine percent drop in sales (Brooks, 2023). The backlash from right-wing pundits and politicians caused Bud Light to backtrack significantly but threw gas on the fire. Multiple LGBTQ+ Bars began to pull the product for attempting to erase the progress that Bud Light attempted to make. One bar owner said, “What we are saying is that you cannot erase our community - you cannot put part of our community, particularly the 'T,' in danger - and think we are going to continue to give you our money, so we removed the products" (De Mar 2023). Conclusion Money and influence have gone hand and hand since the dawn of cavillation, and individuals with capital will continue to influence politics. With a new wave of political backlash to certain stances and a new age of politicians who focus on small-dollar donations, corporate influence should be seeing a change in the near future. Sources Allen, M. Hawkins (2023) E How Bud Light became a microcosm of America in 2023 Axios https://www.axios.com/2023/04/18/bud-light-microcosm-america-2023 Baldwin, S. (1903). American Business Corporations before 1789, The American History Review , Oxford University Press Baptist, E (2014). “ The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism ” Basic Books Beckert, S, Desan, C (2018). “ American Capitalism: New Histories ” Columbia University Press Brooks, K (2023). Bud Light gets stock downgrade just weeks after Dylan Mulvaney fallout CBS News https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bud-light-dylan-mulvaney-stock-downgrade-anheuser-busch-sales/ . Chatterji, C, Toffel, M (2018). The New CEO Activist, Harvard Business Review https://hbr.org/2018/01/the-new-ceo-activists Chmielewski, D. Richwine, L. (2023). DeSantis escalates battle with Disney in new legislative push Reuters https://www.reuters.com/world/us/florida-governor-desantis-moves-nullify-disney-efforts-circumvent-state-2023-04-17/ Davies, D (2018). How American Corporations Had A 'Hidden' Civil Rights Movement National Public Radio https://www.npr.org/2018/03/26/596989664/how-american-corporations-had-a-hidden-civil-rights-movement De Mar, C. (2023) Chicago LGBTQ bars drop Anheuser-Busch products after company distances itself from Dylan Mulvaney, CBS News Chicago https://www.cbsnews.com/chicago/news/chicago-lgbtq-bars-anheuser-busch-dylan-mulvaney/ Ferleger, L, Lavalle, M (2018). How Black Businesses Helped Save the Civil Rights Movement Institute for Economic Thinking https://www.ineteconomics.org/perspectives/blog/how-black-businesses-helped-save-the-civil-rights-movement Frasca, R. (1990). From Apprentice to Journeyman to Partner: Benjamin Franklin’s Workers and the Growth of the Early American Printing Trade. The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 114(2), 229–248. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20092470 Frasca, R. (2004). BENJAMIN FRANKLIN’S PRINTING NETWORK AND THE STAMP ACT. Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies, 71(4), 403–419. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27778636 Gramm, J (2015). “ Dear Chairman: Boardroom Battles and the Rise of Shareholder Activism” Harper Business Hu, E. (2012). Chick-Fil-A Gay Flap A 'Wakeup Call' For Companies National Public Radio https://www.npr.org/2012/07/27/157417229/chick-fil-a-gay-flap-a-wakeup-call-for-companies Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U.S. 241 (1964) Kolhatkar, S (2022) The CEO of Anti-Woke, INC. The New Yorker, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/12/19/the-ceo-of-anti-woke-inc Lin, K T (2022). “The Capitalist and the Activist” Berrett-Koehler Publishers O’Connor. (2014). Chick-fil-A CEO Cathy: Gay Marriage Still Wrong, But I'll Shut Up About It And Sell Chicken, Forbes https://www.forbes.com/sites/clareoconnor/2014/03/19/chick-fil-a-ceo-cathy-gay-marriage-still-wrong-but-ill-shut-up-about-it-and-sell-chicken/?sh=4887a68b2fcb Osgood, H. (1896). The Corporation as a form of Colonial Government, Political Science Quarterly Oxford University Press Ruef, M (2014). “ Between Slavery and Capitalism” Princeton University Press Srinivasan, B (2017). “ Americana: A 400-Year History of American Capitalism” Penguin Press Senate Bill 101, (IN 2015) https://iga.in.gov/legislative/2015/bills/senate/101#document-92bab197 Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States. (n.d.). Oyez. Retrieved May 18, 2023, from https://www.oyez.org/cases/1900-1940/221us1 Williams, E (2021). “ Capitalism & Slavery ” The University of North Carolina Press Winkler, A (2018). “We the Corporations: How American Businesses Won Their Civil Rights” Liveright Wright, G (2020). Slavery and Anglo-American capitalism revisited The Economic History Review, 1-31 https://economics.stanford.edu/sites/economics/files/ehr12962.pdf (2022) Chick-fil-A Beats the Boycott Wall Street Journal https://www.wsj.com/articles/chick-fil-a-beats-the-boycott-americas-favorite-restaurant-dan-cathy-customer-satisfaction-survey-11657059430 Previous Next

The Pressure of Youth Activism Written By: Joseph Sweeney Publishing Date: August 22, 2022 The Electoral College is an integral part of how we elect our President, yet many Americans are not aware of how it came to be. According to the National Archives , the Electoral College was established as “a compromise between the election of a President by a vote in Congress and an election of the President by popular vote of qualified citizens.” It began during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 where delegates gathered from every state to discuss a better way to establish a more functional government than the Articles of Confederation. This led to two proposals: The Virginia Plan and New Jersey Plan. Virginia argued for three branches of government, as well as a bicameral legislature where a state’s representation would be proportional to its population. Whereas New Jersey argued to keep a unicameral legislature, where each state would get one representative regardless of population. States with higher populations favored the Virginia Plan, while smaller states preferred the New Jersey Plan. After an intense debate, the majority sided with Virginia, but the smaller states who opposed this plan threatened to withdraw from the union, which threatened to derail the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. To stop the Convention from spiraling out of control, Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth put together the Connecticut Compromise , also known as –"The Great Compromise." This created two legislative bodies in Congress: The House of Representatives and the Senate. The number of members each state could have in the House would be based on each state’s population while in the Senate, each state would have two representatives regardless of population. The population and resulting congressional districts each state would have would be updated every ten years according to the national census. The number of electors each state has is the sum of its Congressional districts plus the number of senators. For instance, Colorado currently has been divided into seven congressional districts, and each state is granted two senators no matter what, giving Colorado a total of nine electors. Today, the Electoral College has 538 electors, with 270 being necessary to elect the President. However, back when there were only thirteen states the Electoral College had only sixty-nine electors with a minimum of thirty-five electoral votes needed to win the presidency. However, in the 18th century slavery was still legal in most of the states, and with the creation of The Great Compromise most states worried that slave-owning states would get increased influence and overwhelm the other smaller states that chose to ban it. This is apparent in the 1790 census where it showed Virginia’s total population had risen to 747,610 but 292,627 of its residents were slaves. Such states wanted to find a way to make use of their slave population to gain congressional representation in accordance with the state’s total population. Thus The 3/5th Compromise was established between the northern and southern Convention delegates as a way of determining how much the slave population would be represented as part of the state’s total population. For every five slaves in a state would then count as three free citizens to determine how many congressional districts each state would be allotted. Sources Brand, David. City Limits. May 25 2022. "'What Keeps Me Motivated Is Taking Action'—Panel Explores Pressures and Expectations Placed on Youth Climate Activists." citylimits.org. https://citylimits.org/2022/05/25/what-keeps-me-motivated-is-taking-action-panel-explores-pressures-and-expectations-placed-on-youth-climate-activists/ Graceffo, Loretta. Fair.org. "Media Must Stop Asking Youth Activists to ‘Save the World’" Jun. 19. 2021. https://fair.org/home/media-must-stop-asking-youth-activists-to-save-the-world/ Staufer, Rainsford. Teen Vogue. Mar. 21. 2021. “Young Activists” Label Can Be a Burden for Youth Organizers. https://www.teenvogue.com/story/young-activists-pressure-youth-label Previous Next

The conversation surrounding immigration in the United States has grown. Read how to add to the rise of youth activism. < Back Immigration The United States has a history of being known as a nation built by immigrants. Every year, one million people move to the U.S., making it the country with the most immigrants in the world. As a result, immigration has been a strong focal point for both public and political debate. The Migration Policy Institute reported that in 2019, 45 million immigrants lived in the U.S., accounting for 14 % of the U.S population. Furthermore, they also discovered that in 2016, 11.3 million undocumented immigrants were living in the U.S. However, the current immigration policy has been seen as inhumane, unfair, and lacking basic rights, and there is a huge need to fix our system. The last comprehensive legislation to make it through Congress was in 1986. Since then, no other immigration reform has made it that far. Immigrants need a more improved pathway to citizenship. It is necessary, more than ever, to stay informed and address the issues within our current immigration policy. There are many benefits of immigration; for example, they contribute to our communities with food and culture. They also fill and create jobs, significantly contributing to the economy. Updating the reform has been a tedious process, and millions of documented and undocumented immigrants living in the U.S. will be impacted by these decisions. We need to work towards creating an improved system that is fair, quicker, more efficient, and will protect those in need. In this way, immigrants may then become citizens and start contributing to the future of the U.S. OTHER TOPICS Labor Rights Medical Autonomy Mental Health Racial Justice Social Class Discrimination Voting Rights Climate Change Environmentalism Gender Equality What can I do about this? 1. Join in the immigration debate and advocate for a humane reform that will respect the rights on everyone. 2. Use your social media and educate those closest to you. Speak up about the thousands of families torn apart in detention centers, and about how America can start providing humane treatment to refugee children. USYF CONTENT An Interview with Edgar Lara from Sin Barreras by Melissa Ballard External Resources Previous Next

Impacts of Academic Rejection & How to Handle It Written By: Brianna H. Vanderstelt Publishing Date: June 2, 2023 Rejection stings. Whether social, romantic, or career-related - in all contexts, being rejected can be hurtful and sometimes lasting. Unfortunately, academic rejection is no different. One of the hardest lessons I’ve learned throughout my schooling is that I won’t always get what I want. In other words, there’s a genuine possibility of rejection with any risk I take. While all rejection can be upsetting, academic rejection often left me questioning my passion, career path, and who and what I wanted to be. It might also bring about emotions of inadequacy, confusion, anger, or jealousy. Halasyamani and Tolman (2018), members of the review board for articles submitted to the scientific journal Inorganic Chemistry , compare the feelings of rejection to the five stages of grief. Due to the impact academic rejection has on one’s self-esteem, confidence, and mental health, it’s worthwhile to share some of the difficult but essential lessons learned from facing rejection in the academic space. Academic success nor failure is correlated with your worth. Although rejection can often feel like a personal attack, it’s crucial to recognize that it never truly is. Numerous factors go into these decisions, some having nothing to do with the applicant. Sometimes, it can be as simple and petty as a committee member having a bad day. Rejection is an issue of fit. Related to the above point, rejection is not about you not being “good enough”; instead, it’s more about not being a good match for whatever it is you are applying for. Pre-established rules, values, missions, and even culture can tie into the decision-making process. Will you fit in with those around you? Do you fit in with the university's values, scholarship, team, etc.? Reframe the way you think about rejection. If rejection doesn’t define you and it’s an issue of fit, then it would make sense to not perceive rejection as failure. Instead, I advocate thinking of rejection as an opportunity. For instance, consider how you can now spend that time and effort you would’ve dedicated to whatever you tried out for. Perhaps you’ll be able to pay it elsewhere, gaining new experiences you wouldn’t have otherwise. It’s okay to sit with your feelings, but don’t dwell. As with all things in life, you’ll likely have a visceral reaction to academic rejection, especially if it was for something you wanted. As discussed by Nemours Kids Health Medical Experts (n.d.), you should acknowledge and take note of your feelings. Don’t ignore them, but don’t obsess over them, either. Finding coping mechanisms that work for you when those feelings come about will be beneficial. Be aware of your thoughts and correct or challenge the overly negative ones. Also explained by Nemours Kids Health Medical Experts (n.d.), you should consider how you think about rejection. Self-blaming or putting yourself down will only make you feel worse and prolong these negative emotions. For instance, instead of telling yourself, “I got rejected because I’m incompetent,” say, “I got rejected because it just wasn’t the right fit for me,” or “it wasn’t my time.” Everyone faces rejection. One of the adverse side effects of being in a space that praises and prides itself on success, such as academia, is that the misses and failures aren’t talked about. However, everyone faces academic rejection. When there are only so many opportunities or spots and numerous applicants, rejection is a guarantee in everyone’s academic career. While not an exhaustive list, these are some hard-earned lessons when faced with academic rejection. In the end, you may not be able to control rejection, but you can manage your response. Most importantly, don’t let the fear of rejection prevent you from trying. Avoiding academic rejection and not putting yourself out there may save your feelings, but it won’t bring success. Sources Halasyamani, P. S., & Tolman, W. B. (2018). The five stages of rejection. Inorganic Chemistry , 57 (9), 4789–4790. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00900 Nemours Kids Health Medical Experts (Ed). (n.d.). Rejection and how to handle it (for teens) . KidsHealth. https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/rejection.html Previous Next

How Education in America Evolved Written By: Carson Watkins Publishing Date: June 25, 2023 How Education in America Evolved According to The United States Department of Education, 91.1 Percent of Americans will receive a high school diploma, and 38 percent will attend college (Department of Education, 2022). But what the students learn has been a multi-century-long debate that has picked up in recent years. Public Schools operate with standards brought by the State Government. This seemingly inconspicuous policymaking has become a key talking point from the kitchen table to presidential candidates. Early America In early America, only ten percent of American children were in school. (Middlekauff, 1961, 78) However, early in the Revolutionary period, American schools started to take shape. The Upper East Coast began to invest in the education of youth. Founding Father Thomas Jefferson invested heavily in education. Jefferson laid a foundation for what Public Schools would become in the Virginia State Government. At the time, Jefferson's efforts failed to gain government support. (Altenbaugh, 1999, 192). The only children who were being educated were children with wealthy parents. With a growing sense of urgency to get legitimacy for the new land, state governments began to mandate that children be taught literacy. The way American history is taught to school children is at the forefront of the education debate, and the roots of this debate go back to the Revolutionary period. According to the University of Minnesota, “Textbooks were written to standardize spelling and pronunciation and to instill patriotism and religious beliefs in students. At the same time, these textbooks included negative stereotypes of Native Americans and certain immigrant groups.” Religion In Schools As education became widespread in America, religious groups wanted schools to teach religion. In the early 19th Protestants and Catholics' arguments over teaching religion in schools became deadly when violence erupted, causing catholic churches to be burned down. (Pew Research Center, 2019). Protestants had the support of government officials; in Massachusetts, the government required the Kings James version of the Holy Bible to be taught. (Altenbaugh,1999,41). Anti-Catholic sentiment would be brought into educational policy for the next century. Catholic schools began requesting federal funds for schooling. Protestants started to lobby for these funds not to be given, citing Catholic bigotry. The most prevalent voice in this movement was Paul Blanshard, who said in the magazine Nation, “Struggle between American democracy and the catholic hierarchy depends on the survival and expansion of public schools.” (Ravitch, 1983, P. 32). This statement would cause controversy. Still, in the backdrop, a string of decisions from the nation’s highest court would fundamentally shape education in the United States. Supreme Court changes Education In Illinois, public schools had a set time called “release time,” when students would get specialized schooling for religious teaching at certain times. Vashti McCollum, an atheist, sued, citing first amendment violations. In an eight-one decision, the court ruled that schools could not aid in religious teaching. (Ravitch, 1983, P. 32). Religious groups did get a small win in Zorach v. Clauson when the court ruled that students in the state of New York could get released to attend religious instruction if it was not on public property. (Zorach v. Clauson). Shortly after this, the religious movement would face another blow in the case of Engel V Vitale. According to court documents, schools in New York implemented voluntary prayer at school, and once again, a lawsuit was brought against the school board in New York. In an eight-one decision, the court ruled that sponsored prayer in schools is against the Constitution's First Amendment establishment clause. In the opinion of the court, Justice Black said, “The people's religions must not be subjected to government pressures for change each time a new political administration is elected. Under that Amendment's prohibition against governmental establishment of religion.” (Black, 1962). New Politics of Schooling In a new hyper-partisan America, classroom politics have been challenging, and some believe that their children are not receiving a proper education free of politics. This has led to grassroots organizing of “Parental Rights Groups” Across the United States, with groups of parents demanding more access to their children’s schooling and input on the curriculum. While parental rights groups are a relatively new phenome, the Supreme Court has made rulings in the past that parents have brought forth on behalf of their children. Joseph Griffith (2021) at the American Institute of Economic Research said, “The United States Supreme Court first upheld this right of parents in a series of landmark cases in the mid-1920s. In Meyer v. Nebraska (1925), the Court struck down a state law prohibiting instruction in German to students before the ninth grade; in the lesser-known decision of Farrington v. Tokushige (1927), the Court overturned a similar law in Hawaii that forbade instruction in Japanese. In Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925), the Court struck down an Oregon law that effectively outlawed private schools.” (Griffith,2021) The new age of parental rights has drawn criticism for what some few as an extremism of policy making. During the Covid-19 pandemic, United States Attorney General Merrick Garland issued a statement declaring government action due to increased violent threats to teachers and other school administrators. (Garland, 2021, P.1). The most proviolent parental rights group right now is Moms for Liberty. Founded by two moms in Florida, the organization's mission statement states, “Moms for Liberty is dedicated to fighting for the survival of America by unifying, educating, and empowering parents to defend their parental rights at all levels of government.” They initially planned to focus on policies in Florida, but with backing from several political leaders, the group began to expand nationwide. This attention has brought criticism from civil rights groups. Recently, the Southern Poverty Law Center (2023) added the group to their hate map list, accusing the group of being anti-government and accusing schools of teaching woke ideology and sexualizing children. The founders of the group Tiffany Justice and Tina Descovich, fought back in the Wall Street Journal, saying, “The SPLC and its donors want the parental rights movement to end. They find it threatening that parents have become vocal and involved in the education system since the pandemic, and they want us to sit down and shut up.” (Justice, Descovich, Wall Street Journal, 2023). Groups on the left have risen, attempting to stop groups like Moms for Liberty by training and running candidates against the group’s candidates. In the Washington Post, Katie Paris of Red Wine and Blue said, “A big goal is to flip back seats that were won by extremists in 2021 just to stop the chaos.” (Harden, Washington Post). The Books That Are and Aren’t in The Library In 1977, the public school board investigated the school’s curriculum and library materials in Warsaw, Indiana. This review led to the dismissal of seven teachers, the removal of books from the library, and the ending of the school newspaper. (Reichman, 2001, P. 4). The calling to ban books from the library has increased in light of the prenatal rights movement. Parents believe that their children aren’t only given questionable material in the classroom but also material available in the library. However, some believe this is an attempt to ban books and censor new ideas from children. In the 1980s, the Supreme Court ruled against banning books in the school library in the Board of Education, Island Trees Union Free School District No. 26 v. Pico by Pico when students sued their school board, alleging violations of their first amendment rights. In a five to four decision, the court ruled in the student’s favor saying that schools violated the student's first amendment rights by banning these books. In a concurring opinion, Justice Blackmun (1982) states, “The Court, therefore, has acknowledged the force of the principle that schools, like other enterprises operated by the State, may not be run in such a manner as to "prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion." Despite this ruling, the banning of books is on the rise. According to the American Library Association (2022), have been 1,269 demands to censor library books and resources in 2022. Opponents of the book ban say restricting access to these materials damages student education. Proponents of book bans argue over politics in the classroom. In the book The Language Police, Diane Ravitch says, “However, as I read current guidelines, it was clear that they went far beyond the original purpose of eliminating bias and had developed into an elaborate language code that bans many common words and expressions.” (Ravitch, 2003, P. 32) The Past, Present, and Future of History Education In his book “Battle for The American Mind,” Fox News Host Pete Hegseth (2022) says, “When I was in high school, the overwhelming historical ethos of the classroom was an example of Martin Luther King Junior. We all knew America had a past full of racial scars and other problems, but our modern responsibility was to fill the incomplete values of our founding.” (Hegseth, 2022, p. 35). This is the way many on the right believe how history education should be in American schools. The ways to teach American History have been one of the most significant debates in American education among groups such as Mom’s for Liberty, leaving teachers, administration, and textbook publishers in an uncomfortable limbo. While this is a prevalent issue, it is not a new one. After the Supreme Court ruling in Brown V Board of Education, desegregated schools, educators had to grapple with how to teach in multicultural classrooms. Donald Yacovone (2022) alleges that education pre- Brown was based on a white supremacist view of history. Textbook publishers had to grapple with these changes in the 1990’s drawing criticism for not presenting a both sides view of historical events. Ravitch (2003) Believes that students should read primary documents and use the textbook should be a reference guide. Interpretations of history will always spark debate, and that's why teachers, administrators, and textbook producers must include first-hand sources of history that allow students to draw their conclusions. Conclusion Every parent wants what’s best for their child, but parents will inevitably disagree on the topics that should be taught to students in a classroom setting. That is why it is crucial for schools to set an informative curriculum that informs students of the issues, the arguments and allows them to discuss with peers and parents and form their own opinions. Sources [Author removed at the request of original publisher]. (2016, April 8). 16.1 a brief history of education in the United States. Sociology. https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/16-1-a-brief-history-of-education-in-the-united-states/ Altenbaugh, R. (1999). Historical Dictionary of American Education. Greenwood Press Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1). (n.d.). Oyez. Retrieved June 15, 2023, from https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483 Board of Education, Island Trees Union Free School District No. 26 v. Pico by Pico. (n.d.). Oyez. Retrieved June 15, 2023, from https://www.oyez.org/cases/1981/80-2043 Chen, G. (2022, March 7). A history of public schools. Public School Review. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/a-history-of-public-schools Collis. (2023, May 19). 2022 book Ban Data. Advocacy, Legislation & Issues. https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/book-ban-data Corno, L. (2001). Education Across a Century: The Centennial Volume. The University Of Chicago Press Engel v. Vitale. (n.d.). Oyez. Retrieved June 15, 2023, from https://www.oyez.org/cases/1961/468 Federal Bureau of Investigations. (2022) PARTNERSHIP AMONG FEDERAL, STATE, LOCAL, TRIBAL, AND TERRITORIAL LAW ENFORCEMENT TO ADDRESS THREATS AGAINST SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS, BOARD MEMBERS, TEACHERS, AND STAFF Griffith, J. (2021, November 11). The long history of parents’ rights. AIER. https://www.aier.org/article/the-long-history-of-parents-rights/?gclid=CjwKCAjwhJukBhBPEiwAniIcNazK30A9auh2z5oLUs7-dxhCF1UDj7TF2U1r14fmef6jWcq_jhea8RoCEowQAvD_BwE Harden, J. (2023, June 14). Liberals try to reclaim “parents” rights from Conservatives in Education. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/06/12/progressive-education-activist-m4l/ Hegseth, P. (2022). Battle for the American Mind: Uprooting A Century of Miseducation. Broadside Books Illinois ex rel. McCollum v. Board of Ed. of School Dist. No. 71, Champaign County. (n.d.). Oyez. Retrieved June 15, 2023, from https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/333us203 Middlekauff, R. (1961). Education in Colonial America. Current History, 41(239), 5-8. https://doi.org/45310546 Mitchell, T. (2019, October 3). Religion in the public schools. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2019/10/03/religion-in-the-public-schools-2019-update/ National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.). College Enrollment Rates. Coe - college enrollment rates. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cpb/college-enrollment-rate#:~:text=The%20college%20enrollment%20rate%20in,Alaska%20Native%20(28%20percent) . Ordoñez, F. (2023, June 8). Book bans are on the rise. Biden is naming a point person to address that. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2023/06/08/1180941627/biden-pride-month-book-bans Ravitch, D. (1983). The Troubled Crusade: American Education 1945-1980. Basic Books Ravitch, D. (2003). The Language Police: How Pressure Groups Restrict What Students Learn . Random House, INC Reichman, H. (2001) Censorship and Selection: Issues and Answers for Schools American Library Association Reisner, E. H., & Butts, R. F. (1936). History of American Education during the Colonial Period. Review of Educational Research, 6(4), 357-363. https://doi.org/1167454 Rooks, N. (2017) Cutting School: Privatization, Segregation, and the End of Public Education. The New Press Rury, A. (2002). Education and Social Change: Themes in the History of American Schooling. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Shapiro, B (2004). Brainwashed: How Universities Indoctrinate Americans Youth . WND Books Southern Poverty Law Center. (n.d.). Moms for liberty. Southern Poverty Law Center. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/moms-liberty Yacovone, D (2022). Teaching White Supremacy: America’s Democratic Ordeal and the Forging of Our National Identity. Pantheon Books Previous Next

Many inequities in the United States are worsened by lack of access to affordable healthcare. Join other youth in acting today. < Back Healthcare Inequality Healthcare disparities are the differences in physical and mental health and the accessibility of affordable, quality healthcare that arise from broader social, economic, or environmental inequalities. For example, research shows that Black women are up to four times more likely than white women to die from a pregnancy-related cause. Additionally, in 2017, 10% of Hispanics reported having fair or poor health compared with 8.3% of non-Hispanic whites. Also, members of the LGBTQ+ community are 11% more likely to experience psychological distress. And finally, across all states, 5.1% of — or 3.9 million — students don't have health insurance coverage. Thus, it is pivotal to push for legislation that decreases healthcare costs across the country, improves general healthcare quality (especially in rural, urban, and low-income areas), and eventually achieves universal health insurance coverage. OTHER TOPICS LGBTQI+ Rights Labor Rights Medical Autonomy Mental Health Racial Justice Social Class Discrimination Voting Rights Climate Change Environmentalism What can I do about this? 1. We need to improve access to care by pushing for legislation that decrease healthcare costs around the country. Stay alert, and educated, so that we can help pass legislation that will improve the overall quality of healthcare and patient outcomes. 2. Fight for legislation that help cover those that are without health insurance. A lack of health insurance coverage is associated with high mortality rates. So, first step to universal health insurance is to provide coverage to minorities and deprived families. USYF CONTENT How Healthcare Inequality Affects Young Minorities by Areionna Anthony External Resources Restrictions on Disability Aid (And The Case For Removing Them) by Joseph Sweeney Previous Next

Legislation continues to creates gender bias In the United States. Learn what youth can do to improve gender equality. < Back Gender Equality Gender equality is a matter of social justice as it allows equal access to rights, resources, and opportunities. It is a condition of development and a matter of peace and sustainability. Countless women in regions all around the world face challenges and violence from extremist groups. They deal with numerous threats each day and these limitations weaken the concept of gender equality. Examples of these struggles can be seen with the influx of Syrian refugees. Women and girls from these refugee groups tend to face more violence and sexual explotation compared to men. Around the globe, women form a majority of those living in poverty as they have less power and influence compared to their male peers. When it comes to government, women make up less than 24% of the world parliamentarians. Compared to men, women are also paid 24% less than men for comparable work, across all regions and sectors. 153 countries have laws that discriminate against women economically, this includes 18 countries that state husbands can legally stop their wives from working. The United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women has outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that by 2030 all nations should make progress towards gender equality by promoting positive policy. This means appealing laws that inhibit the economic development of women and passing policies that improve their ability to move freely. Women should be allowed to make decisions about their bodies and health. These changes also need to be made in the private sector by providing equal pay for all women and men. Unions must take action to improve gender equality by fighting for gender parity in the workplace. Men can support these initiatives by ending violence towards women and supporting successful prosecution of perpetrators. Male CEOs and Heads of State can fight for equal pay for their female counterparts. Trans and gender-diverse individuals also face tremendous violence and mistreatment throughout their lives. We must provide positive and equal environments for all genders when we discuss gender equality. Gender equality is necessary for a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable future. We have made progress in the last decades but a number of challenges still remain. OTHER TOPICS Immigration LGBTQI+ Rights Labor Rights Medical Autonomy Mental Health Racial Justice Social Class Discrimination Voting Rights Climate Change What can I do about this? 1. One way in which you can promote gender equality in the workplace is by being transparent about wages. Have an open discussion with others concerning wages, to ensure women aren’t receiving less than men in the same roles. 2. Women have less political power than men. Try voting for more women so that they can have access to political position. By having an equal presence of women in politics or leadership positions, the interests and values of women will be better represented on a political level. USYF CONTENT Sexism — Civil Rights Act and Harassment by Laura Ruzicka External Resources Sexism — Career Advancement & Financial Stability by Laura Ruzicka Equality Act — What It Is And The Current Status by Tatiana Pagan Previous Next